Human Development is the process by which inherited traits are expressed as physical and behavioral characteristics. Developmental Psychology has been an important area of interest to psychologists over the years. It tries to develop general principles that can be applied to everyday situations.

One of the first areas of concern is the roll of heredity versus the role of environment. For many years, debates swirled as to which factor influenced development more. Today, most psychologists argue that heredity and environment both play a part in one’s development. Maturation is the process by which abilities unfold over the years.

A second area of concern is whether development is a continual smooth process or whether it is a series of critical periods followed by less critical periods, sort of like “peaks and valleys.” A third concern is whether earlier development is more important than later development. Historically, psychology has emphasized early development, but in recent years there has been an increased emphasis on later development.

We will look at human development in a number of different ways, stressing both theories and specific types of development. It is important to remember that we approach this topic as an “overview” and that detailed research into each of these areas would produce many volumes of work and individuals who spend their entire career studying a specific area.

One of the first individuals to critically analyze human development was the Austrian Psychiatrist Sigmund Freud. Freud is one of the most influential theorists in psychology and theorized about child development to form the basis for his overall theory of Psychoanalysis (which will be studied later on in the course).

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Harry Harlow conducted experiments for many years using rhesus monkeys. Early theories stated that infants become attached to their mother because they are a source for food. Harlow, using two surrogate mothers (substitute mothers) made of chicken wire and of chicken wire wrapped with cloth, showed that physical contact with the cloth was just as important to the infant as milk for food. Harlow also showed that infant monkeys preferred rocking mothers to stationary mothers.

Note: Harlow’s experiments were considered controversial and contributed to the rise in the animal rights movement. Visit this link to learn more.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harry_Harlow

“Identification” is the process of acquiring behaviors that are characteristic of others. While Freud felt that this process was exclusive in that the child wants to be their parents, other psychologists tend to use the term “imitation” to signify the process by which behavior is observed and copied by others. As the child grows and imitates those behaviors that parents feel are appropriate, they provide praise such as “That’s my boy,” which acts as a reinforcer for the behavior (see unit on conditioning). So reinforcement is another important factor in shaping personality.

Parents play a key role in all aspects of a child’s personality and social development. Children tend to copy their parents’ values and try to be just like them. One area that parents play a key role is in “sex role development,” or the acquisition of appropriate male and female behaviors. Traditionally, American men are expected to be self-sufficient, tough, and tender. Today, these expectations are changing as men and women share responsibilities and societal tasks. But parents still treat boys and girls differently and tend to label their child’s behaviors in traditionally male and female ways.

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Lawrence Kohlberg has theorized about how morality develops in children. His work parallels Piaget’s but sorely examines the mental reasoning in making a moral decision. Kohlberg asked children of various ages to solve a moral dilemma: a situation whose solution places the person in what appears to be a “no win” situation. For children, the situation might involve the saving of a kitten in a tree when your father or mother have told you not to climb trees. For adults, the situation might involve a man who was forced to steal drugs to save his dying wife. Kohlberg was not concerned with what answer was given, but what reasoning went into the decision. Kohlberg’s stages of moral development showed a progression from basic ideas of reward and punishment to more abstract ideas of internal ethics (see chart). One key development which Kohlberg found to signal the beginning of true ethical (internal) moral reasoning is when the child begins to see things through “someone else’s eyes.”

Stages 1 through 5 are adapted from Lawrence Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning as described in Kohlberg (1975, 1978, 1981); Stage 0 is adapted from William Damon (1977) and Robert Selman (1980).

STAGE 0:

EGOCENTRIC REASONING

(preschool years – around age 4)

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To get rewards and avoid punishments.

STAGE 1:

UNQUESTIONED OBEDIENCE

(around kindergarten age)

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To stay out of trouble.

STAGE 2:

WHAT’S-IN-IT-FOR ME FAIRNESS

(early elementary grades)

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Self-interest: What’s in it for me?

STAGE 3:

INTERPERSONAL CONFORMITY

(middle-to-upper elementary grades and early-to-mid teens)

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So others will think well of me (social approval) and I can think well of myself (self-esteem)

STAGE 4:

RESPONSIBILITY TO “THE SYSTEM”

(high-school years or late teens)

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To keep the system from falling apart and to maintain self-respect as somebody who meets my obligations.

STAGE 5:

PRINCIPLED CONSCIENCE

(young adulthood)

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The obligation of conscience to act in accordance with the principle of respect for all human beings.

Lesson 6 Review

Anwser the questions below

1. What relation exists between heredity and environment when discussing human development?FILLER TEXT

2. What are the five stages of development according to Freud? Describe each.

3. How does Erik Erikson view personality development?

4. What conclusions were reached by Harry Harlow in his research with Rhesus monkeys?

For #5-20, identify the scientist(s) most closely associated with the following ideaFILLER TEXT5. Inherited traits are expressed as physical and behavioral characteristics.

6. The unfolding of abilities over the years.

7. Unconscious attraction of male child for his mother.

8. Saw human development as a lifelong process of resolving social conflicts.

9. Conducted experiments studying attachment in Rhesus monkeys.

10. The process of acquiring behaviors of others.

11. Appropriate male-female behavior.

12. Studied cognitive development in children.

13. A child’s way or plan for understanding the world.

14. Taking in the world into one’s schema in order to understand it.

15. Changing one’s schema to fit new situations.

16. The first stage of cognitive development; basically reflex.

17. Studied moral reasoning in children.

18. A girl’s unconscious attraction for her father.

19. Studies animal behavior and links it to human behavior.

20. Studied imprinting.

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